Plexin-A3, a required co-receptor for Nrp2, was found to be strongly expressed in type I SGN processes, but only faintly detectable in type II SGNs [40]. function of type II SGNs. and [42, 96]. Sparse numbers of labeled SGNs are detected using an anti-dsRED antibody that binds to tdTomato (white). Hair cells are labeled with Myosin VI (blue). Each type I SGN has an unbranched peripheral axon contacting a single IHC. Type II SGN processes pass through the tunnel of Corti, turn towards the base and form contacts with OHCs. (E and F) 3D reconstruction of a type II SGN process (white) and OHCs (blue) in B. OHCs are reconstructed with GFP expressed by (psuedocolored blue). Arrows point to a few examples of contacts between the type II SGN and OHCs. Scale bar in C-F: 15 m. In terms of nerve supply, the organ of Corti receives innervation for both afferent input and efferent feedback. Afferent innervations arise from SGN somata (Fig. 1B) located in Rosenthal’s canal in the cochlea. SGNs are bipolar or pseudounipolar neurons with peripheral axons (Fig. 1B; PA) terminating at HCs and central axons (Fig. 1B; CA) projecting into the cochlear nuclei within the brainstem. SGN peripheral axons cross the osseous spiral lamina before passing through the habenula perforata to enter the organ of Corti [8]. We will discuss the two types of SGNs, type I and type II, in detail in the following sections. Although it will not be elaborated upon here, the SGNs along the tonotopic axis show clear distinctions in terms of physiological firing properties and the expression of synaptic proteins and channels [9, 10]. Thus, beyond the known type I and type II populations, there must be additional SGN subtypes (or gradients of types) yet to be fully characterized. There are also two classes of cochlear efferent innervations (Fig. 1A), both of which provide inhibitory and excitatory feedback [11]. Unmyelinated lateral olivocochlear efferent neurons form axodendritic synapses with type I SGNs underneath IHCs, and myelinated medial olivocochlear efferent neurons form axosomatic synapses with OHCs [12, 13]. The cochlear efferent system ultimately plays an important role in many AMG 837 sodium salt auditory functions, including protection from damaging noise and sound discrimination in noisy backgrounds. Cochlear efferent modulation of the auditory system has been reviewed recently [13-17]. Hearing loss is one of the most common health issues in the United States affecting at least 15% of adults [18] and often involves a loss of hair cell or spiral ganglion neuron function. The current common treatment of hearing loss includes hearing aids for patients with functional HCs and cochlear implants for patients with profound or complete hearing HC loss and mostly intact SGNs. In a cochlear implant, an electrode array substitutes for IHCs in transmitting electrical impulses to the auditory nerve. In both cases, functional SGNs are indispensable in sending information from either HCs or the electrode array to the CNS. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the development and patterning of SGNs, so perhaps the neural circuitry in the ear can be maintained or regenerated after impairment. The development of type I SGNs has been discussed in a few recent reviews [10, 19-24] and in a recently published book The Primary Auditory Neurons of the Mammalian Cochlea [25]. In this review, we touch on some well-known and recently discovered elements of type I SGNs, but most of our attention is usually devoted toward some recent and exciting findings related to type II SGNs. 1.1 Neuroanatomical features of type I SGNs Type I SGNs represent 90-95% of the total SGN population and are thus responsible for the vast majority of hearing input. Each type I SGN extends one unbranched peripheral process, or radial fiber, which forms a single ribbon synapse with one IHC (Fig. 1). Each IHC is innervated by a total of 6-20 type I.Please note that during the production process errors may be discovered which could affect the content, and all legal disclaimers that apply to the journal pertain.. are detected using an anti-dsRED antibody that binds to tdTomato (white). Hair cells are labeled with Myosin VI (blue). Each type I SGN has an unbranched peripheral axon contacting a single IHC. Type II SGN processes pass through the tunnel of Corti, turn towards the base and form contacts with OHCs. (E and F) 3D reconstruction of a type II SGN process (white) and OHCs (blue) in B. OHCs are reconstructed with GFP expressed by (psuedocolored blue). Arrows point to a few examples of contacts between the type II SGN and OHCs. Scale bar in C-F: 15 m. In terms of nerve supply, the organ of Corti receives innervation for both afferent input and efferent feedback. Afferent innervations arise from SGN somata (Fig. 1B) located in Rosenthal’s canal in the cochlea. SGNs are bipolar or pseudounipolar neurons with peripheral axons (Fig. 1B; PA) terminating at HCs and central axons (Fig. 1B; CA) projecting into the cochlear nuclei within the brainstem. SGN peripheral axons cross the osseous spiral lamina before passing through the habenula perforata to enter the organ of Corti [8]. We will discuss the two types of SGNs, type I and type II, in detail in the following sections. Although it will not be elaborated upon here, the SGNs along the tonotopic axis show clear distinctions in terms of physiological firing properties and the expression of synaptic proteins and channels [9, 10]. Thus, beyond the known type I and type II populations, there must be additional SGN subtypes (or gradients of types) yet to be fully characterized. There are also two classes of cochlear efferent innervations (Fig. 1A), both of which provide inhibitory and excitatory feedback [11]. Unmyelinated lateral olivocochlear efferent neurons form axodendritic synapses with type I SGNs underneath IHCs, and myelinated medial olivocochlear efferent neurons form axosomatic synapses with OHCs [12, 13]. The cochlear efferent system ultimately plays an important role in many auditory functions, including protection from damaging noise and sound discrimination in noisy backgrounds. Cochlear efferent modulation of the auditory system has been reviewed recently [13-17]. Hearing loss is one of the most common health issues in the United States affecting at least 15% of adults [18] and often involves a loss of hair cell or spiral ganglion neuron function. The current common treatment of hearing loss includes hearing aids for patients with functional HCs and cochlear implants for patients with profound or complete hearing HC loss and mostly intact SGNs. In a cochlear implant, an electrode array substitutes for IHCs in transmitting electrical impulses to the auditory nerve. In both cases, functional SGNs are indispensable in sending information from either HCs or the electrode array to the CNS. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the development and patterning of SGNs, so perhaps the neural circuitry in the ear can be maintained or regenerated after impairment. The development of type I SGNs has been discussed in a few recent reviews [10, 19-24] and in a recently published book The Primary Auditory Neurons of the Mammalian Cochlea [25]. In this review, we touch on some well-known and recently discovered elements of type I SGNs, but most of our attention is devoted toward some recent and exciting findings related to type II SGNs. 1.1 Neuroanatomical features of type I SGNs Type I SGNs represent 90-95% of the total SGN population and are thus responsible for the vast majority of hearing input. Each type I SGN extends one unbranched peripheral process, or radial fiber, which forms a single ribbon synapse with one IHC (Fig. 1). Each IHC is innervated by a total of 6-20 type I SGNs in the mature mouse cochlea [26]. Each type I SGN also extends a long central projection that shows a remarkable stereotyped branching pattern, which is dependent on the receptor guanylyl cyclase Npr2 [27]. One branch extends into the anteroventral cochlear nucleus and the second branch crosses the posteroventral cochlear nucleus to terminate at the dorsal cochlear nucleus [8]. The branch directed toward the antereoventral cochlear nucleus forms a.In the following sections, we discuss new insights into functional roles of type II SGNs. 4.1 Activation of type II SGNs by glutamate released from OHCs Although there were notable differences compared to IHC firing properties, Weisz and colleagues found that type II SGNs can indeed be activated by OHC depolarization and glutamate release [32, 72, 73]. tdTomato (white). Hair cells are labeled with Myosin VI (blue). Each type I SGN has an unbranched peripheral axon contacting a single IHC. Type II SGN processes pass through the tunnel of Corti, turn towards the base and form contacts with OHCs. (E and F) 3D reconstruction of a type II SGN process (white) and OHCs (blue) in B. OHCs are reconstructed with GFP expressed by (psuedocolored blue). Arrows point to a few examples of contacts between the type II SGN and OHCs. Scale bar in C-F: 15 m. In terms of nerve supply, the organ of Corti receives innervation for both afferent input and efferent feedback. Afferent innervations arise from SGN somata (Fig. 1B) located in Rosenthal’s canal in the cochlea. SGNs are bipolar or pseudounipolar neurons with peripheral axons (Fig. AMG 837 sodium salt 1B; PA) terminating at HCs and central axons (Fig. 1B; CA) projecting into the cochlear nuclei within the brainstem. SGN peripheral axons cross the osseous spiral lamina before passing through the habenula perforata to enter the organ of Corti [8]. We will discuss the two types of SGNs, type I and type II, AMG 837 sodium salt in detail in the following sections. Although it will not be elaborated upon here, the SGNs along the tonotopic axis show clear distinctions in terms of physiological firing properties and the expression of synaptic proteins and channels [9, 10]. Therefore, beyond the known type I and type II populations, there should be additional SGN subtypes (or gradients of types) yet to be fully characterized. There are also two classes of cochlear efferent innervations (Fig. 1A), both of which provide inhibitory and excitatory opinions [11]. Unmyelinated lateral olivocochlear efferent neurons form axodendritic synapses with type I SGNs underneath IHCs, and myelinated medial olivocochlear efferent neurons form axosomatic synapses with OHCs [12, 13]. The cochlear efferent system ultimately plays an important role in many auditory functions, including safety from damaging noise and sound discrimination in noisy backgrounds. Cochlear efferent modulation of the auditory system has been examined recently [13-17]. Hearing loss is one of the most common health issues in the United States influencing at least 15% of adults [18] and often involves a loss of hair cell or spiral ganglion neuron function. The current common treatment of hearing loss includes hearing aids for individuals with practical HCs and cochlear implants for individuals with serious or total hearing HC loss and mostly intact SGNs. Inside a cochlear implant, an electrode array substitutes for IHCs in transmitting electrical impulses to the auditory nerve. In both instances, practical SGNs are indispensable in sending info from either HCs or the electrode array to the CNS. Consequently, it is necessary to understand the development and patterning of SGNs, so perhaps the neural circuitry in the ear can be managed or regenerated after impairment. The development of type I SGNs has been discussed in a few recent evaluations [10, 19-24] and in a recently published book The Primary Auditory Neurons of the Mammalian Cochlea [25]. With this review, we touch on some well-known and recently discovered elements of type I SGNs, but most of our attention is dedicated toward some recent and exciting findings related to type II SGNs. 1.1 Neuroanatomical features of type I SGNs Type I SGNs symbolize 90-95% of the total SGN population and are thus responsible for the vast majority Sox2 of hearing input. Each type I SGN stretches one unbranched peripheral process, or radial dietary fiber, which forms a single ribbon synapse with one IHC (Fig. 1). Each IHC is definitely innervated by a total of 6-20 type I SGNs in the mature mouse cochlea [26]. Each type I SGN also stretches a long central projection that shows a remarkable stereotyped branching pattern, which is dependent within the receptor guanylyl cyclase Npr2 [27]. One branch stretches into.3B) [81-84], which may directly activate type II SGNs. in the molecular mechanisms that control how type II SGNs develop and form contacts with OHCs, and exciting fresh insights into the function of type II SGNs. and [42, 96]. Sparse numbers of labeled SGNs are recognized using an anti-dsRED antibody that binds to tdTomato (white). Hair cells are labeled with Myosin VI (blue). Each type I SGN has an unbranched peripheral axon contacting a single IHC. Type II SGN processes pass through the tunnel of Corti, change towards the base and form contacts with OHCs. (E and F) 3D reconstruction of a type II SGN process (white) and OHCs (blue) in B. OHCs are reconstructed with GFP indicated by (psuedocolored blue). Arrows point to a few examples of contacts between the type II SGN and OHCs. Level pub in C-F: 15 m. In terms of nerve supply, the organ of Corti receives innervation for both afferent input and efferent opinions. Afferent innervations arise from SGN somata (Fig. 1B) located in Rosenthal’s canal in the cochlea. SGNs are bipolar or pseudounipolar neurons with peripheral axons (Fig. 1B; PA) terminating at HCs and central axons (Fig. 1B; CA) projecting into the cochlear nuclei within the brainstem. SGN peripheral axons mix the osseous spiral lamina before moving through the habenula perforata to enter the organ of Corti [8]. We will discuss the two types of SGNs, type I and type II, in detail in the following sections. Although it will not be elaborated upon here, the SGNs along the tonotopic axis display clear distinctions in terms of physiological firing properties and the manifestation of synaptic proteins and channels [9, 10]. Therefore, beyond the known type I and type II populations, there should be additional SGN subtypes (or gradients of types) yet to be fully characterized. There are also two classes of cochlear efferent innervations (Fig. 1A), both of which provide inhibitory and excitatory opinions [11]. Unmyelinated lateral olivocochlear efferent neurons form axodendritic synapses with type I SGNs underneath IHCs, and myelinated medial olivocochlear efferent neurons form axosomatic synapses with OHCs [12, 13]. The cochlear efferent system ultimately plays an important role in many auditory functions, including safety from damaging noise and sound discrimination in noisy backgrounds. Cochlear efferent modulation of the auditory system has been examined recently [13-17]. Hearing loss is one of the most common health issues in the United States influencing at least 15% of adults [18] and often involves a loss of hair cell or spiral ganglion neuron function. The current common treatment of hearing loss includes hearing aids for individuals with practical HCs and cochlear implants for individuals with serious or total hearing HC loss and mostly intact SGNs. Inside a cochlear implant, an electrode array substitutes for IHCs in transmitting electrical impulses to the auditory nerve. In both instances, practical SGNs are indispensable in sending info from either HCs or the electrode array to the CNS. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the development and patterning of SGNs, so perhaps the neural circuitry in the ear can be maintained or regenerated after impairment. The development of type I SGNs has been discussed in a few recent reviews [10, 19-24] and in a recently published book The Primary Auditory Neurons of the Mammalian Cochlea [25]. In this review, we touch on some well-known and recently discovered elements of type I SGNs, but most of our attention is devoted toward some recent and exciting findings related to type II SGNs. 1.1 Neuroanatomical features of type I SGNs Type I SGNs represent 90-95% of the total SGN population and are thus responsible for the vast majority of hearing input. Each type I SGN extends one unbranched peripheral process, or radial fiber, which forms a single ribbon synapse with one IHC (Fig. 1). Each IHC is usually innervated by a total of 6-20 type I SGNs in the mature mouse cochlea [26]. Each type I SGN also extends a.